The inmost tug9/3/2023 ![]() The triggering of these receptors leads to activation of the innate immune response through the production of type 1 interferons (IFNs) as well as other cytokines and chemokines. These various receptors are capable of identifying unique components of the virion, such as the high repetition of capsomers and peplomers on virion surfaces as well as the viral nucleic acid and its various replication intermediates. The major types of pattern recognition receptors include members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family as well as the cytoplasmic sensors retinoid acid–inducible gene-like receptors and nucleotide oligomerization domain-like receptors. The DCs are armed with a number of different pattern recognition receptors that can identify unique pathogenic molecular signatures called pathogen-associated molecular patterns. ![]() Foremost among the cells involved in the body’s first line of defense are the dendritic cells (DCs). ![]() Certain pathogens, particularly viruses, have a long history of causing great harm to human populations, and the human body has evolved to develop an armory against these viral challenges. Usually, the body is able to cope with the pathogenic challenge and overcome the threat. The human body is under constant threat from pathogens. IV drug use, blood transfusions, perinatal transfer, and sexual contactĬlose contact with saliva of infected personĬomplications associated with immunocompromised patientsĬhicken pox (in children) Shingles (in adults) No wonder that chronic viruses have very smartly evolved to use this important cell type to their advantage. Although viruses can differ in their tropism and interact with many different cell types, one major cell type that all viruses must initially challenge is immune cells that are involved in surveillance, recognition of foreign threats, and antigen processing and presentation to other key immune cell types. Following conditions of stress, other physiological triggers, or even secondary pathogen infection, these viruses can come out of latency and progress to cause disease symptoms. Such individuals remain asymptomatic during the course of primary infection. Following primary infection, most of these chronic viruses progress into a state of latency with minimal viral gene expression, allowing them to evade immune surveillance. These chronic viruses can escape and subvert the immune response through a wide variety of unique mechanisms ( Table 1). 1) include human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), hepatitis viruses B and C (HBV and HCV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), papillomavirus (HPV), and adenovirus (HAdV). ![]() Some of the major human chronic viruses ( Fig. With chronic viral infections rising globally, persistent viruses have attracted much attention and most of our current understanding about them has emerged in the past decade. However, in this constant struggle of power between viruses and the host, there are some viruses that the body is not able to fully clear that persist and gradually develop into chronic infections. Our defense immunity is able to successfully protect us from a plethora of viruses. Humans have evolved a complex and diverse armory to defend against viruses in the form of innate and adaptive immunity. It is for these reasons that viruses have garnered such considerable attention over the years and much research has focused at understanding the mechanisms of how viruses interact with the host. Viruses have been one of the major causes in tremendous loss of human lives and, thus, being an important matter of health and economic concern.
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